About the Book
Philosophical investigation or enquiry into the import of the Upanisadic texts, according to Advaita, becomes relevant only in the context of superimposition or erroneous cognition of the mind etc., and their characteristics on pure consciousness - the only reality. The problems connected with the theory of superimposition thus serves as the prolegomena to the philosophy of Advaita and they have been set forth by Sankara in his celebrated introduction to his commentary on the Sariraka-mimamsa-sutras.
Vyasatirtha (15th century A.D.), a protagonist of the Dvaita school in his polemical work - Nyayamrta rejects the Advaita theory of superimposition or erroneous cognition of the mind etc., and their characteristics upon the pure consciousness. Madhusudana Sarasvati (16th century A.D.), in his magnum opus - the Advaita-siddhi defends the Advaita position by examining and rejecting the criticisms of Vyasatirtha.
The present work is an analytical study of the arguments of Madhusudana Sarasvati against the criticisms of Vyasatirtha.
About the Author
J. Krishnan is Associate Professor in the Department of Sanskrit, Pondicherry University. His teaching and research interests are in the areas of Advaita Vedanta, Nyaya and Sahitya. He has participated in a number of National and International Seminars. He has contributed many papers to Philosophical Journals.
Foreword
Dr. Krishnan, Associate Professor in the Department of Sanskrit, Pondicherry University worked as T.N. (JRF) Fellow in the Department of Sanskrit, University of Madras from 1987 to 1993 and wrote his Doctoral Thesis on "Prolegomena To Advaita Vedanta". The thesis earned for him the Ph.D Degree of the University of Madras in 1993. It is now published by the Adi Sankara Advaita Research Centre, Chennai.
This work presents a critique of the Adhyasa-bhasya, the celebrated introduction by Sankara to his commentary on he Sariraka-mimamsa-sutras. The theory of adhyasa or superimposition of the material element of the phycho-physical organism of which the mind is the predominant factor upon he Self which is pure consciousness, a seamless whole, suprapersonal absolute, and the one and the only Real serves as the ground for identifying the theme (visaya) of the Upanisads, and the aim (prayojana) of their study.
The first aphorism, atha atab brahma-jijnasa means:
Subsequent to the attainment of competence to pursue Vedantic study (atha), since the Upanisads speak of liberation as attainable only by the knowledge of the Self (atah), one shall inquire into the nature of the Self (brahma-jijnasa) by the study of the Upanisads [with/a view to attain the knowledge of the Self).
This is the explicit meaning of the aphorism. Its implicit meaning the theory of superimposition.
The knowledge of the Self which results from the study the Upanisads would become purposeful only by removing smsara or bondage consisting of the characteristics of being an agent (kartrtva), an experient (bhoktrtva), and a knower (pramatrtva) in the case of jiva, the complex of the Self and e psycho-physical organism. If bondage were real, then it cannot be removed by knowledge, as knowledge could remove only ignorance (avidya) and its effects which are non-real (mithya). Hence it must be accepted that the bondage in the case of the jiva is non-real or a superimposed factor (adhyasta). A spiritual aspirant becomes convinced that he could embark upon the study of Vedanta as it has a definite aim, viz., the removal of bondage.
The theory of superimposition, besides pointing to the aim of the Vedantic study, indicates the theme of the Upanisads. The knowledge of the Self: is said to remove bondage in the case of the jiva. This would not be possible if the jiva and the Self are different from each other. For, by the knowledge of something, ignorance and its effects present in something else cannot be removed. It must, therefore, be conceded that the jiva and the Self are identical with or non-different from each other. In other words, the jiva is the Self falsely identified with the psycho-physical organism. And, the material cause of this false identification is avidya which is in determinable either as real (sat), or as an absolute nothing (a-sat), or as both (sadasat).
Secular and scriptural activities, and philosophical endeavour, according to Advaita, become relevant only in the context of the illusory cognition or superimposition of the characteristics of being an agent, an experient, and a knower in the case of the jiva, Since the jiva is only a blend of the Self and the psycho- physical organism, and since the characteristics of being an agent, etc., are non-real in its case, it comes to this, Sankara observes, that perception and other means of knowledge and also the sruti texts have reference to the one who is under the realm of avidya. In order that the sacred and the secular activities may be carried out an agent (karta) is necessary. And the agent must be a knower. To be a knower is to be the substratum of knowledge. Knowledge is a blend of pure consciousness and the mode of the mind. The Self which is consciousness, being supra-relational, cannot serve as its substratum. It could become so, only when it is falsely identified with the mind. Further, such a knower, in order that he may direct the means of knowledge, should have the false notion of "mine" in the sense organs. The sense organs are located in the body, and so the knower must have the conceit of "I" or "mine" in the physical body too. It follows that all the means of knowledge including the texts that speak of liberation and its means have a bearing upon the superimposition of the mind, the sense organs, the physical body, and their characteristics upon the Self - the superimposition caused by avidya. This IS precisely the reason why Sankara has prefaced his commentary on the Sariraka-mimamsa-sutras with an exposition of the theory of superimposition - the theory which in the language of Padmapada is sakalatantropodghata or Prolegomena to Advaita Vedanta.
Vyasatirtha (15th century A.D.), the pre-eminent preceptor of the Dvaita school, in his polemical work, Nyayamrta raises a series of objections against the theory of superimposition. The objections are as under:
1. The jiva is single and complete in itself. It is the ahampadartha. It is not a part of a complex whole as the Advaitin thinks;
2. The relation between pure consciousness and the mind and other factors may be viewed as real and not as a perimposed one;
3. Pure consciousness as conceived by the Advaitin connot serve as the substratum of the superimposition of the body-mind complex; and,
4. Avidya which is admitted as an indeterminable entity and as the material cause of superimposition is a pseudo-concept.
Madhusudana Sarasvati (16th century A.D.) in his magum opus, the Advaita-siddhi sustains the position of Advaita by advancing arguments in its support, and by confuting the objections of Vyasatirtha by defending the viewpoint of Advaita from his attacks.
Dr. Krishnan after a close study of the relevant sections of the Nyayamurta and the Advaita-siddhi and other related texts on Nyaya and Advaita explains in this work with painstaking accuracy the criticisms of Vyasatirtha against the Advaita view and Madhusudana Sarasvati's rejection of them point by point by showing their falsity and untenability. And, he expounds in a perfectly logical and straightforward manner the reasons and evidence adduced by Madhusudana Sarasvati in support of the position of Advaita. His linguistic erudition has enabled him to consult the original sources and to elucidate them authentically. The work makes no statement which it does not support by reference to the original texts in Sanskrit. This is corroborated by the numerous passages carefully culled from original works and reproduced at the back of the work which, besides supporting the argument of the work at every stage, reveal the author's skill in documentation too.
On the whole, this work contains a faithful presentation in English of the Adhyasa-bhasya of Sankara, It is superbly researched and exquisitely presented in a simple and limpid style in spite of the technical character of the. subject-matter; and, it is indeed a significant contribution to the literature in English on Advaita.
The world of scholars will feel grateful to the authorities of the Adi Sankara Advaita Research Centre for bringing out the publication of this work.
I have great pleasure in commending this work to serious students of Advaita.
Preface
The present thesis entitled "Prolegomena To Advaita Vedanta" is the result of my research work in the Department of Sanskrit, University of Madras under the guidance of Prof. N. Veezhinathan.
The thesis is an attempt to explicate the Advaita theory of superimposition of the mind etc., and their characteristics on pure consciousness against the background of the criticisms by the Dualistic school.
To the Authorities of the University of Madras, I am thankful for permitting me to work in the Department of Sanskrit for the Ph.D Degree of the University of Madras, and for according me permission to publish this thesis.
To the Authorities of the Government of Tamilnadu, I am grateful for awarding me the Junior Research Fellowship (TN) to pursue the Ph.D. course.
I will be failing in my duty if I do not record my great indebtedness to my Prof: N. Veezhinathan for his kind guidance at every step.
To my friend Prof. V. Kamakoti, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, I express my sense of gratitude for his constant encouragement and moral support.
To the President and other office-bearers ·of the Adi Sankara Advaita Research Centre, I am endlessly grateful for sponsoring the publication of this work under the auspices of the Centre.
To my friend, Dr. V.M. Ananthanarayanan, Associate Professor ID Sanskrit. National College. Tiruchirapalli. I am grateful for his courteous help in correcting the proofs.
I am thankful to Dr. C. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Department of Saiva Siddhanta, University of Madras for typesetting this work and to Sri M.S. Maniyavan of Elango Achukkoodam for his kind co-operation and neat execution of this work.
Contents
Foreword:
ix
Preface:
xiii
List of Abbreviations:
Xv
Chapter - 1
Introduction
1
Chapter - 2
Jiva - A Blend Of Pure
Consciousness And The Mind
9
Chapter - 3
Relation Between Pure
35
Chapter - 4
Pure Consciousness - The Substratum Of Superimposition Of The Mind
70
Chapter - 5
Avidya - The Material Cause
Of Superimposition
111
Chapter - 6
Conclusion
168
Appendix:
Notes On Chapters
172
Bibliography
210
His Holiness Shri Satchidanadendra Saraswati Swami ji had written more than 15 books on Vedanta in English besides editing the book, "Vedanta or the Science of Reality", by the late K.A. Krishnaswamy lyer. He has also written masterly introduction in English to his own two magnificent Sanskrit works, viz. Mandukya Rahasya Vivrutihi and Vedanta Prakriyaa Pratyabhijna. His presentation of Vedanta in a precise, classical style has earned the admiration of several Indian scholars as well as critics from the west. Etre, a quarterly French journal on philosophy, published from paris, has serialized a couple of translations of Shri Swami ji's works. However, shri Swami ji confined himself mostly to writing in kannada to help the common earnest seekers of the land in which he was born. He was also the editor of the monthly kannada magazine, "Adhyatma Prakasha" for more than 50 years, and it was his ambition to see that the magazine had a section devoted to English articles on Vedanta which, however, was not fulfilled owing to unforeseen circumstances in fact, for some months he himself wrote some articles specially for the magazine and they were published, but after his demise this English section had to be discontinued. We cherish this desire of publishing various books on pure Vedanta as presented and propounded by shri Swamiji in English. Also.
Shri D.B. Gangolli, a retired journalist of long standing and experience, has been devoting his time and energy for the study and propagation of Shri Swami ji's teachings as outlined in his works. Shri Gangolli was responsible for deciphering a handwritten English manuscript of Shri Swami ji and later editing it in the book form entitled, "The Science of Being".
Shri Gangolli got a deep insight into the nethodology,which was implicit in the Upanishadic lore but was almost lost to the world had it not been for the timely appearance of Shri Swami ji on the spiritual horizon and his masterly exposition of this unique methodology adopted in and through the Upanishadic lore. Fascinated by this wonderful methodology as taught by Shri Swami ji through his 170 and odd books in Sanskrit, Kannada and English, shri Gangolli associated himself with the Adhyatma Prakasha karyalaya, both at Holenarsipur and Bangalore and took active interest in translating some of Shri Swami ji's Kannada books into English and "The Unique Teaching of Shankara" (A Discussion of his Adhyaasa Bhaashya) is one of them. His maiden attempt at translating one shri Swami ji's important works is highly commendable. We are thankful to him for his kind gesture of permitting the publication of his English translation in our monthly magazine, besides sharing the cost of Printing along with several of his friends and admirers, including a devotee of shri Swami ji from Bombay.
We hope that the discerning readers will appreciate out attempt to present shri Swami ji's enlightening thoughts and teachings to the English knowing aspirants. We also hope to publish many more such books in English mainly translations of Shri Swami ji's kannada books which are acknowledged as his masterpieces by scholars and critics alike.
Adhyaasa Bhaashya, an introduction by Adi Shankara to his Brahma Sutra Bhaasgya, has a Preeminent position in the Achaarya's works. If the implicit techings in the Adhyaasa Bhaashya are understood properly, it gives the clue to unravel the secrets and subtleties of the traditional methodology of Adhyaaropa Apavaada Nyaaya or the maxim of Superimposition and Rescission adopted in and through the Upanishads lore as well as in Shankara's Bhaashyas. This little known methodology is a superb means to gain the intuitive experience of the self, the Ultimate Reality.
Adhyaasa in an innate, natural and beginning-less ignorance of the nature of delusion or misconception and in order to help remove this intrinsic misconception alone all the Upanishads undertake to propound their teachings. This salient fact has been emphasized time and again by Adi Shankara in hsi Bhaashyas. In spite of this, it is a great wonder that this innate ignorance, denoted by the word 'Avidya' has cast its spell on the present – day Vedaantins who are interpreting the word Avidya to mean-the seed form of the world, with the result a situation has arisen which is virtually shaking up the very foundation of Vedaantic teaching and is jeopardizing it.
Protagonists of other schools of Philosophy are taking these misrepresentations by these pseudo-Shankarites, who have written many sub-commentaries on shankara's original Bhaashyas, to be the genuine teachings of the great teacher and are condemning them. Some of these present-day Vedaantins are calling Prakriti or Maya as Avidya only and this misrepresentation has led to the misconception that Vedaanta is a philosophical system which teaches us to believe in the scriptural statements and not gain the intuitive experience of the Self here and now. And today Vedaanta has been mixed up with several tenets of Patanjali's Yoga, on the one hand, and the dielec-tics of the logicians, on the other, and pristine pure Vedaanta as taught originally by Adi Shankara (and even today available fortunately to all true seekers in his extant Bhaashyas) is contaminated and camouflaged. To undo this great damage and in justice done to Shankara's genuine Vedaanta and to help the true aspirants to overcome these formidable obstacles a meticulous study of the fool-proof methodology that is implicit in the original bhaashyas of the great world teacher, Adi Shankara, is the only solution.
This booklet is being serialized in the monthly magazine, Adhyatma Prakash, and now it is brought out for the benefit of the earnest students of Vedaanta. I am grateful to the Trudtees of the Adhyatma for allowing me to associate myself with the Karyalaya's endeavours in propagating Sri Satchida- Kannada. To the best of my Knowledge I have translated our Swami Ji's original Kannada book Adhyaasa Bhaas hyaartha Vimarshe, covering the first 36 pages of original book.
Few will dispute the fact that Sri Sankara, the most exciting philosopher of Advaita Vedanta has no clear-cut answers to the problem of Reality. The shifting focus and emphasis on the various philosophical issues cited in the original exegetics of Sri Sankara by the modern thinkers certainly needs a consensus on arriving at the meaningful and purposeful understanding of the true nature of Reality. The concept of Adhyasa in its three variants has to be asserted from the non-contradictory ground of Reality. In this context, there is a need to differentiate 'mere appearance' (as it appears) and 'the actual appearance' (as it is) or the unmanifest Reality. It cannot be denied that the concepts of 'Brahmatmaikya' and 'Brahmabhava' created confusion in many thinkers, but the authentic explanations by Sri Sankara steadfastly made the Advaitic perspective unchallengeable in all the times. The invention of the great legacy of Sankara had been paramount in this work. The centrality and tangentiality of the concept of 'liberation' is well attended here. Being extremely concerned on the -deviations created on the argumentative philosophizing presented by Sri Sankara, the present work attempts to establish the valid tones of sound philosophy of Advaita Vedanta at its best.
DR. N. USHA DEVI is a learned Vedantic scholar, teacher of Vedanta, especially Advaita Vedanta of Sri Sankara. Residing in the great land of the birthplace of Sri Sankara, the prolific thinker of Advaita, she had been teaching Advaita Vedanta and related Indian philosophical systems at Sree Sankara College, Kalady affiliated to Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala from 1986 onwards to 2020. At present, Dr. Usha Devi is engaged in bringing forth a new volume on 'Hindu Dharma- the Supervenience and Emergent Evolution'.
The concept of adhyasa in the philosophy of Sri Sankara has provided a strong ground of explanation for many of the concrete philosophical presuppositions that are difficult to be understood even today. Adopting the general frames of the Vedic teachings and justifying these through the Upanisadic presentations, he resolves the suitability of the Brahmasutras of Badarayana. This is to counter the definitive issues raised against Advaita Vedanta by the opponents. The rhetoric of his teachings has the pristine beauty in that even his followers were sometimes confused over the justifications or had difficulty in understanding certain concepts. Getting on to such a deep analytical exegetics, divergence of philosophical conceptions had swept over and two major schools of thought resulted- the Bhamati and the Vivarana. From an analysis of the concepts of these two schools, it can be understood that both schools could not be able to determine the right utility of a major concept 'adhyasa' or superimposition adopting one of the three exhibits of adhyasa by Sankara. The fact is that the author of the Ratnaprabha seems to be very close to the original implications of Sankara who accepts 'Atasmin tadbuddhih' as adhyasa.
On this background, the author of the present book 'Adhyasa- An Analytical Exegesis on Sri Sankara' examines the analytical implications of the different concepts on adhyasa. The views of different schools of thought that existed before Sankara and after him are also accounted for.
The main subject- matter discussed in this work includes the implications of avidya, adhyasa and Maya in terms of epistemic and transcendental level. The author fords impregnate evidences to show that there are distinctions between these three, Maya standing at the transcendental level, avidya and adhyasa at the empirical level. Though Sankara argues that such a differentiation is not easy to distinguish, for, adhyasa on the epistemic level is adhyasa from the logical angle, he admits avidya as the cause and adhyasa as the effect. It is Atmaikatva alone that informs about adhyasa according to him.
Another argument discussed is about the concept of 'mere appearance' of the Reality. This mere appearance is the distortion of the Reality. Further, an analytical discussion is taken up on admitting a three-faced nature of Reality-Brahman as Itself, as the ground of appearance and as appearance as substantive real. The next issue considered is regarding the knowledge of the Vedas. Sankara does not admit the absoluteness for the Vedas as they are revealed ones. These are absolute in the sense of mere appearance only. Finally, there is another important concern for consideration on 'Atma ca Brahma' which is not acceptable to the author also. 'Brahman as Atman' is a mere appearance.
It will be possible to the reader to have an unambiguous understanding of the views of Sri Sankara from this book and thereby to direct the Vedanta into its original comprehensive exposition. The readers might thus contemplate on this template as the one way of understanding the prudence and sagacity of Advaita Vedanta in its right terms. The views expresed in this book are ever open to genuine correction and shall be gladely acknowledged.
My sincere and earnest thankfulness to M/s Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi for accepting to publish this work of Adhyasa -An Analytical Exegesis on Sri Sankara. I am also indebted to Kripa Printers Ankamaly, Kerala for helping me to draft and prepare the text in a very symbolic way.
Advaita Vedanta has the very distinctive methodology of comprehension of the Reality in that it is not strictly a philosophical discipline. It is a reflective vision on the Reality which is justified through the intuitive experience within oneself. The propensity of an individual to the Truth in a state of experience and existence marks the uniqueness of this thinking. The scheme of thought initiated by sage Narayana and carried on by his so-called Guruparampara has provided the ground for even some variants of thought on Advaita such as dualism and the like. The ancient scriptures and the Upanisads which mark the intuitive experiences of the sages form the only foundational comprehensive testimonies or justifications of the nature of Truth-experience. The Advaita thinking had solicited answers to the most fundamental questions on the Reality such as the 'what' and 'how' - the most difficult conceptualization on the Reality.
To review the philosophical concerns of man, available evidences indicate that despite the strong credentials of the ancient Advaita ground there is a clear indication of metamorphosis of the Advaita Philosophy, in particular, the Advaita Vedanta from the ancient Vedic scheme of thought and the dogmatic Upanisadic spiritual integral visions on Truth. The Vedic discourses on the nature and content of the Reality, the relational propositions on World and the human constitution are not mere facts of primitive immature thoughts but rightly points to the highest 'knowledge'. Though emphasis on Karma was a distinctive theoretical prejudice, pertaining to the ground of reflecting on the content of Truth, imperatively this points out to a very splendid presentation on the facts that are intuitively experienceable. It is the seers of the Upanisads who realized these Truths in flashes of light that eliminated any misunderstanding on the Reality as such through the systematic process of 'Self- Realization'. The Upanisadic seers further reflecting on the necessity of extolling the Reality looked into altering the means of 'Self- Realization' changing the modes of knowing the Reality and thus admitting of the relevance of 'knowledge' of the Absolute as the only means to the end.
It is significant that there is a definitive message on the necessity of understanding the Reality in its knowable perversion which otherwise is beyond any perceptual premise and thereby validating the grounds for plausibility of human transcendence through 'Self- Realization' bringing out the oneness or realization of the non-difference among human beings, God and the objective world. As far as the factual understanding of the Reality and conceptual analysis are concerned, the Upanisads certainly provide the clear means to the knowledge of the Reality which facilitates only a non-distinction from It. But as substantiation on the fact of philosophizing it is the Brahmasutras that bring in a systematisation of the Upanisadic thoughts but in a concise form. However, because of difficulty in getting acquainted with the sutras misinterpretations rather than subjective ones evolved unfolding the logical inconsistencies of the arguments in these sutras. The intricacy in these sutras was fully unfolded by the great Acarya Sri Sankara who through his intuitive experience and great intellectual skill schematises the ideas of the Brahmasutras in complete conformity with the Upanisads. His endeavour marks a complete metamorphosis of the intricacies of the Upanisadic thinking.
Sri Sankara, taking into reflective analysis the presentations of the philosophical validations and justifications of his Advaitic predecessors like Upavarsa, Kasakrtsna, Jaimini, Badarayana, Badari, Gaudapada etc. strives to enrich the Advaita thinking making the entire cognitive enterprise illuminatingly rational at different levels of experience. The interpretative technique and justifications, validations, clarifications and simplifications along with elucidations on potential reciprocation by opponents mark of his depth of reflective knowledge and understanding of the nature of Reality. A theistic leaning of the Brahmasutras, which actually is not the case as proved by Sankara, was facilitating, cleared off its subjective prejudices through reflective interpretations and with the aid of logical reasoning, was ineffably bracketed out and the inscrutable revelations of the scriptures were recognised as the sole means to understand the Reality. Finally, it is Non-dualism or the non-distinction between the subject and object that comes to the fore. It is the identification of the individual with the Absolute Self transcending everything originated that is aimed at the knowledge of Atmaikatva' by Sankara. He emphasized the undeniable testimony of the experience in establishing the Truth positively.
Sagacity in the Brahmasutras of Badarayana
The first schematic elucidation of the Advaita Vedantic thoughts is presented by the sage-philosopher Badarayana. Though some opponents charge that such schematics was done even before Badarayana by thinkers like Asmarathya, Kasakrtsna, Karsnajini, Badari, Audulomi or Jaimini, it can be asserted that the true philosophical compilations based on Upanisads were made by Badarayana alone in sutra form. The shades of difference in interpretations of the Upanisadic thoughts were also prevalent during the period of the orthodox philosophical systems. But such thoughts were more regularly systematized by Badarayana into the sutra literature. Sutras, the short aphorisms meaning clues of the systematic treatises are intended to represent memory aids to long discussions on any topic which student undergoes with his teacher. But a deep study of the early Vedantasutras shows that these were unintelligible that resulted in multifaceted interpretations.
Though some efforts were made by the early thinkers who never deviated from the Advaitic notion on Reality but no works of such efforts are available it can be said that Badarayana's efforts to schematize these Advaitic thoughts deserve significance as they are truly documented. Even in the case of the author of the Brahmasutras some doubts have been raised whether this Badarayana is the same as that of the Vyasa of Mahabharata fame or a different person. The presence of the expressive thought of some passages in Gita gives rise to this doubt on identity. However Sankara considers those two as different personalities while Ramanuja and other commentators identify both of them (perhaps to support the bhakti aspect in Gita). There is another view that the work of Jaimini and Badarayana were combined into one which was commented on by Upavarsa that forms the basis of commentary by Sabara, on Purvamimamsa and sankara on Uttaramimamsa. In Brahmasutra Sankara Bhasya Sankara makes this clear. This combining work may also be attributed to Vyasa of Mahabharata or it may be the work of Vyasa who acquired traditionally the above Brahmasutras and then compiled them into the present form. There are evidences in Gita to show that it contains references to Brahmasutras. Further this also reveals that the original Brahmasutras of Badarayana were further systematized by Vyasa including the statements of Gita. The Gita accepts the Samkhya view of creation but modifies it and makes the pradhana subservient to Brahman- the non-dual. In the Brahmasutras also the Sankhyan view is refuted and prakrti is considered as dependent on Brahman'. This view is highlighted by Sankara also.
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Vedas (1349)
Upanishads (658)
Puranas (836)
Ramayana (843)
Mahabharata (279)
Dharmasastras (164)
Vedanta (298)
Gita (1007)
Goddess (457)
Bhakti (238)
Saints (1136)
Gods (1287)
Shiva (319)
Journal (132)
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