Dr. Devendra bahadur singh (born in 1978, chandauli U.P.) at present working as Assistant curator in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Banaras Hindu University Varanasi. He graduated in Art, post graduated in Ancient Indian History culture & Archaeology and Post graduate diploma in Archaeology & Museology. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2009. He specializes in the field of Numismatics and Archaeology. He has been published one Book "Prachin Bharat Mein Vinimay Pranali". and one Monograph "Guptakal Mein Sikkon ki Jalsaji Evam Sanche". About two dozen research papers and Articles presented by him, have been published in various National And International Journals. He is member of executive council of the Numismatic society of India, B.H.U., Varanasi.
The oriental coinages covers early Persian and Indian coinages. In Iran, the monetary system was initiated by Darius I (Hus taspis) about the time when he organized the empire in SATRAPIS (516 B.C.) and established his commercial relation with LYDIA.
The early Greek coinages characterize four stages. Of them-Period I-(702-480 B.C.) is of the Archaic art exhibiting rude style, gradually de-fined forms which are distinguishable by their angularity and stiffness from the fine work of later time. On the obverse the eyes are shown in profile, front of mouth wears a fixed and formal smile and reverse-incuse square. The Period II (480-415 B.C.) represents a great advance in technical skill; dies were engraved. Period III (415-336 B.C.) developed the fine art. Now, on the obverse, ideal heads of divinities are often put. The re-verse bears mythological figures or Agonistic types representing local games and religious festivals. Period IV (336-280 B.C.) is of the later fine art marked by the age of Alexander. His money superseded the autonomous coinage of small states.
In India the silver punchmarked coins are the earliest. This money is one of the most abundant coinages of orient. These coins are found all over the country generally in hoards. Sometimes they contain the Indo-Greek coins in the north and the Roman coins in the south. Further, Among these silver punchmarked coins the specimens of the thin fabrics are generally known from North India while, those which are of thick fabrics are found spread all over the country. The copper punchmarked coins were inducted later, out from a rolled sheet of metal or hammered globules.
The physical features of Ancient India may be broadly devided into following categories:-
INDUS REGIONS
In the north west regions, the Hindu Kush mountains which run from the Pamirs in a south westerly direction, was the natural boundary of India. The south-western portion of this range is now included in Afghanistan. In its south there are the Safed Koh, Sulaiman and Khirthar mountains which are separated by the Table land of Iran. The south and the eastern terrains of the Hindu Kush, for long, both culturally and politically were the parts of India. Of its two principal rivers systems of our country i.e. Indus and Ganges, the former rising in the Tibetan plateau runs in the north-west and west of the subcontinent between the great Karakoram range and the Himalayas. Its tributaries are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Satlaj. Kashmir is watered by the Jhelum. Himanchala Pradesh and Punjab are drained by the upper reaches of the Beas and Satlaj. This river system irrigates and renders fertility.
GANGETIC PLAINS
In the north is Nepal. In the north-east, the Himalayas comprises a series of ranges which form the mountain wall separating India from Burma. The tract near the Gangetic plain known as the Terai is very low and is covered with marshes and coarse tall grass and its mountains are occupies with forest.
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