The Art of Indonesia

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The present book, Art of Indonesia, contains selected research papers presented at the International Conference on the Art of Indonesia organized by the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi, It covers a wide range of studies that include pre-history, art and archaeology, sculptures, performing arts, cosmology, religious beliefs, oral and written records, textiles as well as conservation. The study on Megaliths of Indonesia in Asian Perspectives analyses nature, types, decorative motifs and religious relevance of these remains that compare with those constructed from Scandinavia to Japan in different ecological settings. The artistic linkages with India appeared as a result of widespread cultural continuum. The architectural influence can be observed in two phases: the first phase can be seen from. ninth to tenth century in Malaya, Sumatra as well as western and central parts of Java. The second phase can be noticed from ninth to sixteenth century in the eastern parts of Java and Bali. The ground plan of temple Singhsari has been well analysed and shows close proximity with the South Indian temples. The fire altar for the Asvamedha Yajna has been observed at Chandi Cheto. Iconography of Buddhist and Hindu divinities has also been well focused in this book. The Buddhist deity Vasudhara's consort is identified as Sasa. Hariti and Pancika, protector of children, are well studied here. The artistic styles of the images of Goddess Mahisasura-mardini have been analysed in depth. Ancestral worship in ancient Bali is well delineated in this monograph. The karanas, movement of dance, are well studied and 53 karanas have been identified in the Siva temple at Prambanan. It is surmised that the balustrade of this temple may have contained 108 karanas in perfect serial order as mentioned in the Natyasastra. The development and transformation in dance forms have been reflected in this book. The cosmological significance of art has also been highlighted in this study. The origin of weaving techniques and artistic presentation on the textiles of Indonesia has been well focused in this book. A Charter for Conservation of Monuments and Sites in the region of South East Asia is also proposed.

Bachchan Kumar (Ph.D. and D. Litt.) specializes in Art, History and Culture of the region of South East Asia. Besides, he is well-versed in languages that include French, Bahasa Indonesia, Kawi, Pali and Sankrit. The prestigious A. K. NARAIN AWARD was conferred on him in 2002 by the Indian Archaeological Society, New Delhi. He was also honoured by ASIA FELLOW AWARD, 2004-05 (under Ford Foundation) for the study of "Mahisasura-mardini in Indonesia: An Iconographic Study" at the University of Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia, and ASIA FOLLOW UP AWARD, 2006-07 (under Ford Foundation) for the research project "Mahisasura-mardini in Vietnam.”Dr. Kumar has published 12 books which include The Buddhist Art: Vietnamese Perspectives (BRPC, New Delhi, 2007). Besides, he has published over 50 research papers on South East Asia. Presently, he is in-charge of South East Asian Studies, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi.

This book is published with the kind support of various erudite scholars. At the outset, I pay my special respects to Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan, former Academic Director and Founder Trustee, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA), New Delhi for her conceptual framework of this Conference. Hon'ble Dr. Najma Heptulla, the then Deputy Chairperson, Rajya Sabha and presently Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha has been kind enough to spare her valuable time to inaugurate the Conference and present the inaugural address. I am deeply indebted to her. Dr. Edi Sedyawati, Professor of the Department of Archaeology, University of Indonesia and Dr. Sachchidanand Sahai, Ex pro-Vice Chancellor and presently National Professor (Epigraphy) attached to Archaeological Survey of India, Ministry of Culture, Government of India, New Delhi were kind enough to present the introductory remarks from Indonesian and Indian sides respectively. I express my deep gratitude to them. H.E. Mr. Mangasi Sihombing, Director General for Information, Public Diplomacy and International Treaties, Ministry of External Affairs, Government of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia visited New Delhi especially for presenting the Keynote address of the Conference. I express my sincere thanks to him. I am beholden to H.E. Mr. Rizali W. Infdrakesuma, the then Minister Counsellor and at present Ambassador of the Republic of Indonesia to India in New Delhi for extending his kind support in organising this Conference. Prof. N.R. Shetty, the then Member Secretary of IGNCA provided me guidance for organising this Conference. I express my sincere thanks to him. My special thanks are due to Ms Dipali Khanna, Member Secretary, IGNCA and Shri V.B. Pyarelal, Joint Secretary (Admn.) for their encouragement in bringing out this volume. I am grateful to Dr. N.D. Sharma, Head of the Department, Kala Kosa, for his kind support in bringing out this publication. My thanks are also due to all contributors of this volume. I take this opportunity to thank Shri R.C. Gaur, former Librarian and Head of the Department, Kala Nidhi for his kind support. Dr. P.R. Goswami, Librarian and Head of the Department, Kala Nidhi and all Library staff, especially Shri Musuddi Lal and Shri Vyaz Hashmi, have been very supportive to me for making readily available reading material to me. I express my thanks to them. Er. P. Jha, Director CIL and his technical staff have always kind to me for making available uninterrupted internet facility. I am grateful to them. Last, but not the least, I thank Shri Praveen Mittal at B.R. Publishing Corporation for publishing this book.

Indonesia has maintained close relations with India since time immemorial, sharing an impressive stock of common cultural heritage. In order to understand this shared heritage, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts organised an "International Conference on the Art of Indonesia" (4th to 6th March 2003) for which I had the privilege to act as Academic Coordinator. The Art of Indonesia offers twenty-one research papers presented at the Conference, relating to a wide-range of themes: pre- history, art and archaeology, sculpture, performing arts, cosmology, religious beliefs, oral and written records, textile and conservation. The volume opens with the presentation of the "Megaliths of Indonesia: In Asian Perspective". In this paper, K.N. Dikshit analyses nature, types, decorative motifs and religious relevance of these lithic remains comparing them with those constructed from Scandinavia to Japan in different ecological settings. With some aboriginal tribes of Indonesia, the Megalith building is a living tradition. The paper concerns the megaliths found on the Nias island along the western coast of North Sumatra; among the Batak people in the interior of North Sumatra; on Sumba island in East Nusa Tenggara; and among Toraja people in the interior of South Sulawesi. The structure of these megaliths varies from place to place. The Javanese Megaliths are simple dolmens without floor and without sarcophagi. They represent transitional phase from dolmens to sarcophagus with floor. The Balinese megaliths are small sarcophagi with small skeleton in crouching position. The Sumbawa sarcophagi are large, decorated with human and animal figures. The Sumatran megalithic structures consist of menhirs, dolmens, stone troughs, stone mortars, terrace graves, stone cist graves, stone statues in a static style and stone statues of humans and animals. From Nias, menhirs and stone tables have been found. The megaliths of Indonesia, informs Dikshit, have been placed in Bronze-Iron Age between the 1st millennium B.C. and Ist millennium A.D. They have common architectural structure that has been carved out from small and large roughly dressed slabs of stone of archaic period. It was because of the practice of worship of ancestors that these were produced for the entire society during the classical period in Indonesia. Comparing them with the megaliths of other parts of Asia, Dikshit opines that in South Asia, the Megaliths from Sri Lanka have been seen in the form of stone circle which varies from sixth to second century B.C. As far as megaliths in India are concerned, they have been discovered from the beginning of the nineteenth century. In China, megaliths are found as stone cist, dolmens and cairns. The Korean megaliths consist of menhirs and dolmens. Further, Dr. Dikshit concludes that typologically, megaliths of Indonesia and South Asia have similarities but culturally they do not have any connection. In his paper "Indonesian Art in Continuum Frame" B.B. Kumar highlights the spread of Indian art and culture from the upper Euphrates river to the west of Lake Van during second century B.C.; the remains of Hindu relics, Sanskrit mantras and art tradition of Ajanta at Horyuji Temple in Japan; monasteries studded with Indian divinities and silk scrolls of Tantric images in the heart of Eastern Siberia; and the rare icons of Indian divinities like Mahakala, Kali, Ayushi, Taradevi, etc. in Mongolia. The links of India and Indonesia are the result of this wide spread cultural continuum. The Indian influence can be observed in two phases: the first from ninth to tenth century in Malaya, Sumatra and western and central parts of Java, and second can be seen from ninth to sixteenth century in the eastern parts of Java and Bali.

In his paper entitled "Architecture in Early Java from the 7th to the 15th century A.D.: A Case Study on Hindu Temple", Timbul Haryono discusses the evolution of architectural patterns of the temples of Java in these two periods. He states that the temples of classical Javanese periods are known for the introduction of rich architectural pattern. They are referred to as candi. The early Javanese candis are the replica of Mount Meru, a cosmic mountain located at the centre of the cosmos that constitutes the axis of the world. The Central Javanese period temples are characterized by the moulding on the base of these temples which are flat, semi- circular and bell-shaped projections that underwent a well defined process of evolution over time. Other features of these temples are Kala-head found over the entrances to the temple and above the niche. Often Kala are seen combined with makara. The East Javanese period temples have beautiful reliefs. The best noted is the depiction of the scene of Garuda which has been mentioned in the Mahabharata. This scene is known as Garudeya. The theme of Garudeya is connected to Vimata (Vimana), i.e., deliverance of the soul from all earthly bondages. Nandana Chutiwongs offers a fresh appraisal of the most important East Javanese temple, Chandi Singhasări, which has been associated with King Kertanagara, the last ruler of the Singhasari dynasty of Java. The stylistic analysis, suggests that the whole complex was built in two phases: the first phase started during the reign of Kertanagara at the end of the thirteenth century and the final round was completed in the fourteenth century A.D. Its obelisk- like four-chambered structure, characteristic of the Javanese candis of the thirteenth fourteenth centuries symbolically represents the sacred Mahameru, the axis of the universe and the residence of Supreme God. Presence of monster heads (kala) that crown the doorways and niches and unusual decorative motifs of string of skull-like monster heads running round the base are the decorations of two different periods. The main entry to the walled enclosure of this temple would have been from the north. It is guarded by two immovable and colossal demonic figures with the purpose of protecting the sacred compound and warding off evil influences. The main structure of the enclosure of the temple faces west, which is generally considered to be the quarter of the dead and the usual direction for the entrance to a mortuary structure. This need not necessarily apply to Singhasari, which, despite its connection with the cult of a deceased and deified king, was not built for funerary purpose. Scholars are now unanimous in their opinion that "no corporeal remains of the deceased kings or queens were buried in or beneath these shrines where the royal ancestors were worshipped". The ground plan of the temple was based on South Indian formula of the post-classical period. The iconographic description and position of the icons must have followed the system as we encounter at the Siva temple of the Prambanan group in Central Java. This temple also bears a reflection of new stylistic elements from north-eastern India, especially from Orissa.

**Contents and Sample Pages**