Studies in Ksemendra (Set of 3 Books)

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In the present work an attempt has been made to deal with several aspects of Ksemendra’s life and works, his language and style, his contribution to Sanskrit literature, and his eminence as a critic of the theory and practice of poetry. In his Kavikanthabharana (which may be rightly called kavisiksa) besides discussing possibilities of becoming a poet, of borrowing and adopting from asters of poetic art the poetic charm and its illustration in its ten aspects, merits and demerits with regard to sense, sound and sentiment, Ksemendra gives a hundred pieces of sound advice to the budding poets.

Dr. R. K. Panda, the author of the present work is now working as the Head of the Department of Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit in the Faculty of Arts, the M. S. University of Baroda. He has written and edited twenty five works. He is an eminent poet and creative international and national awards. Recently he received Akhila Bharatiya Kalidasa Award given by Kalidasa Sanskrit Akademi, Ujjain, for his story collection Chinnachaya.

We have hereby great pleasure to present Dr. Suryakanta's Ksemendra Studies, as volume 91 of the Poona Oriental Series. This work provides for the first time in the English language, together with a translation, a study of Ksemendra' s works in general and, in particular, a detailed study of his three manuals on Literature and Criticism, viz. Kavikanthdbharana, Aucityavicaracarca and Suvrttatilaka.

Ksemendra, the Kashmirian poymath of the eleventh century A.D., holds a distinct place in the galaxy of Sanskrit poets. Most of his works are available in print, some are still in manuscript and some more have to be unearthed. Critical editions, even of published works, are yet a desideratum. Ksernendra is widely known but his works are not as widely studied. They deal with diverse subjects, and provide rich material for study from the sociological, as well as literary, point of view.

A word may be said with regard to the mauals under reference. The Kavikanthdbharana deals with the making of the poet, the Suvrttatilaka with the proper use of metres and the Aucityavicaracarca seeks to establish propriety as the soul of poetry. It is true that propriety (aucitya) did not hold ground and was indeed swept away by the overwhelming flood of suggestion (dhvani). The Dhvani doctrine of Anandavardhana was the topic of the day as it were. Mahimabhatta criticised it; but the great Acarya Abhinavagupta upheld it. Ksemendra, Abhinavagupta's own pupil, however, ventured to put some new thought into the whole problem and enunciate propriety (aucitya) as a distinct concept constituting the soul of poetry. Perhpas it was little too much. Aucitya, at all events, is a potent factor with which poetry- or anything for the matter of that-must be judged. But is lacks the all-absorbing appeal of dhvani which marks the ineffable lavanya or charm of the Muse of Poetry. The attempt, however, the analyse and dissect the delicate yet exquisite beauty and peculiar appeal of dhvani was not wise, though correct in theory. The numerous divisions and sub-divisions have made dhavni too ponderous to conceive and too lybyrinthine to negotiate. It were nice if the sastra was there to stimulte and help critical appreciation but not throttle genius by means of hair-splitting rules and injunctions. The growing dialectic about rasa and alankdra sharpened the faculty to reason rather than inspire the faculty to create. It is natural therefore that the less abstract and less equivocal principle of propriety would attract the eye of the longing critic. Though not a big work, the Discourse on Propriety is provoking enough. The numerous examples are illuminating. Nowadays when the knowledge of literary criticism is enriched by contributions from other literature, it is hoped that Ksemendra will prove a welcome thinker in the field for many an enthusiastic scholar to emulate.

Dr. Stiryakanta, Mayurbhanj Professor of Sanskrit, Banaras Hindu University, deserves the gratitude of scholars for having made this important contribution for the advancement of Learning.

The present volume is composed, with a few additions and alterations, of the series of lectures I read at the Lahore University in 1943-44. Though produced under such a learned auspices, It can make no claims to learning. It contains the expressions of an ordinary reader concerning the great Kasmiran poet, who might furnish matter enough for study during one's life-time. I am no specialist in the study of Ksemendra, nor a scholar of the bewildering variety of subjects he chose to treat III his works. I can report no facts and propose no hypotheses about him which are not at hand in his own informative works; and perhaps it is his intellectual vision of the world that the poet himself in particular wishes to hand down to us, and not the shabby incidents that preceded that vision in his own person. My excuse for writing about him, notwithstanding, is, therefore, merely the common excuse for writing about the spring or the moon or a maiden. Ksemendra has attracted me; he has moved me to reflection; he has revealed to me certain aspects of Indian life, literature and philosophy, which I am prompted to express, together with recording a few contributions of fact and opinion that are likely to throw light on the many facest of his complex personality, his works, his enviroment, his faith, his fancy that fed on the study of real things and the vision into which he poured his faculties. What I am offering to the benevolent reader is, thus, a piece of literary criticis, illustrated with an English translation of three of his works; and I hope that even this, necessarily brief, attempt will attract attention of scholars to the intensive study of one, who represents the Kasmirian spirit in its best form, and is the one versatile author in Whom poetry and wisdom were intimately fused; for Ksemendra' s poetry and prose, in their infinite variety, blended with the meditation and a virile practical intelligence by which he sought to penetrate Into the springs of life. In him creative emotion and reasoned thought were locked together to a degree rearely attained In India; and It is this human synthesis, coupled with the alert awareness of the activities of his day, that has appealed to me so much that It seemed to be permissible to signalize Ksemendra's achievements and supplement them with a few such observations as seemed relevant. In. view of some tendency towards a 'general opinion a new objectively elaborated interpretation has a colam to careful consideration; and I hope this little work, may be Instrumental In linking anew the Indian mind with Kasmira that has contributed so infinitely and so vitally to our culture and literature, but whoe original spirit and tradition are now seriously menaced by exotic contaminations. I, as a member of the Panjab Legislature, think no task more important than to ensure that the bonds of Indo-Kasmirian Scholarship remain firm.

I owe thanks to Dr. H '. L. HARIY APPA for help generously given. It was at his suggestion that I gave this work to Dr. R. N. SARDESAI, the proprietor of the meritorious Poona Orient! series for publication; and I also owe a great debt to him and to my old pupil Mr. Jnan Cand for their acute scrutiny of my manuscript and its proofs. For such errors and omissions as remain, I alone am responsible.

KASHMIR, the ancient land of learning produced in the eleventh century of the Christian era a writer of great eminence, the polymath Ksemendra. He is a writer of indomitable zeal and inexhaustible resources. His writings cover a very wide range of subjects. He is a versatile genius; his works include treatises on poetics and prosody. He wrote Kavyas and Mahakavyas, a drama, many didactic poems, poetical epitomes of the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and of Gunadhya' s Brhatkatha, a chroinicle of Kings of Kashmir and a lexicon. Most of his works, numbering about thirty-two, have been published while some are yet in their manuscript form. In the whole range of Sanskrit literature few indeed have tried their hand on such a variety of subjects and with such success. Ksemendra's comprehensive style, his clarity of expression, his power to use satire to the best advantage and his critical insight into literature have earned for him a place among the masters of Indian literary tradition.

In the present work an attempt has been made to deal with several aspects of Ksernendra's life and works, his language and style, his contribution to Sanskrit literature, and his eminence as a critic of the theory and practice of poetry.

In his Kavikanthabharana (which may be rightly called kavisiksa) besides discussing possibilities of becoming a poet, of borrowing and adopting from masters of poetic art the poetic charm and its illustration in its ten aspects, merits and demerits with regard to sense, sound and sentiment, Ksemendra gives a hundred pieces of sound advice to the budding poets. Eminent writers on Sanskrit poetics like Dandin, Rudrata, Vamana, Vagbhata, Rajasekhara, Bhoja and Hemacandra have developed this subject in their treatises, but Ksernendra appears to be quite original in his treatment.

A study of Ksernendra' s works reveals that they were written in accordance with the doctrines propounded in his Kavikanthabharana. For instance, his didactic poems, the Samayamatrka, the Kalavilasa, the Darpadalana, the Sevyasevakopadesa, and the Carucaryasataka illustrate his lokacaraparijiuina (Kavi. II 6) i.e., 'familiarity with the ways of the world', and upadesavisesokti (Kavi II 16) i.e., 'special didacitc skill'. His epitomes of the Epics and the Nrpavali bear testimony to the fact that he was pursuing the principle of itihdsanusaranam (Kavi II 6) i.e., 'accordance with history'. In his Dasavataracarita he illustrates his samyam sarvasurastutau (Kavi II 19) i.e., 'impartiality in the priase of all deities'; in the Padyakadambari his viviktakhyaykdrasa (Kavi II 6) i.e., 'sparkling interest in romances'; in the Citrabharatanataka his niuakabhinayapreksa (Kavi II 15) i.e., 'fondness for dramatic performances', and in his works on poetics kavyangavidyadhigama (kavi II 3) i.e., 'a knowledge of ancillary disciplines' . Since all his works are complete, one might say that he follows faithfully prarabdhakavyanirvaha (Kavi II 22) i.e., 'seeing a poem to its finish'. In fact all the one hundred instructions to the poet are amply illustrated in his works, and it may be concluded that the Kavikanthabharana was a product of his mature genius.

In his Aucityavicaracarca, Ksemendra has developed the theme of PROPRIETY as essentail to poetry. He has illustrated under twenty-eight headings how propriety can either be displayed or violated. His forceful arguments and discussions and his clear enuncitation of principles in defence of what he believes to be poetry, point to his remarkable conception of poetic art and its practice. His Aucityavicaracarca, like his Kavikanthabharana is a mine of quotations from his contemporaries as well 'as predecessors and fully illustrates his contention vyutpattyai sarvasisyatd (Kavi II 14) i.e., 'readiness to become other's disciple for poetic culture'; paronmesajigisd (Kavi II 14) i.e., 'eagerness to emulate or excel others' poetic genius'; mahakavyarthacarvanam (Kavi II 14)_i.e., 'ruminating upon the contents of great poems’; sahavasah (kavivaraih Kavi Il 14) i.e., 'contactor association With eminent poets’; and pathah parakrtasya (Kavi II 3)i.e., ‘study of others’ compositions’.

Ksemendra, to some, might appear in his Aucityvicaracarca a better critic than a poet. But this is a matter of opinion. At any rate, he is to be counted among the great literary critics like Dandin, vamana and Anandavardhana.

The well-known doctrines of Rasa, Alankara and Dhvani, held the ground when Ksemendra propounded his theory of Aucitya. One might say that the concept of propriety had been felt by the elders but it was given to Ksmendra to develop it into a system and declare that Aucitya is the Soul of poetry. Long ago Anandavardhana realised that nothing spoils Rasa as Anaucitya or Impropriety. On the other hand, a composition based on the well-known (prasiddha) and the proper (ucita), constitutes the very secret of Rasa.

Aucitya is Harmony, Adaption, Proportion, Appropriateness, or Propriety. It presupposes Rasa and Dhvani. Professor S. Kuppuswami SASTRI has given a very interesting karika on the position of Aucitya among these concepts, viz.Ksemendra has reproduced faithfully the original epics in his Bharata and Ramayana Majnjaris. His fondness for Vyasa is clear since he added the appellation Vyasadasa (a follower of Vyasa) to his name; for Vyasa, according to him, is bhuvanopajivya 'world-sustainer' . The lost Brhatkatha of Gunadhya finds an echo in his Brhatkatha manjari. His abridgement of the KATHA may be considered to be quite faithful as it easily bears comparison with other extant abridgement.

In his reflections on the world and its vanities, there is sharpenss tones up with good humour and realism. His redicule of the bards and singers, goldsmiths, quacks, astrologers and vendors of patent medicines is frequent and poignant. His Darpadalana is intended to show the folly of pride, while the Sevyasevakopadesa aims at issuing instructions for servants and their masters. The Caturvargasangraha describes the four ends of life, and the Carucarydsataka prescribes the rules of conduct. Almost all his works are interspersed with moral maxims and didactic sayings.

Ksemendra' s treatment of Prosody is remarkable in more than one respect. Being an exponent of the Aucitya school he had said at the end of his Aucityavicarcarca that innumerable facets of Aucitya could be discerned and elaborated besides the twenty-seven discussed by him. Eventually in his Suvrttatilaka he seems to have taken up vrttaucitya i.e. 'propriety of metre' .

Illustrations of different metres are from his own pen. He aims at originality with a vengeance as it were. Excellences and blemished of metres are brought out prominently. Further, there is a discussion on the characteristics of certain metres which makes them luminous and forceful. The appropriateness of certain metres to certain subjects, moods and situations is very instructive. Poets should employ a variety of metres. The favourite metres of Abhinanda, Panini, Kalidasa, Bharavi and Bhavabhiiti are remembered. Ksemendra appears to be the only writer on Prosody who has dealt with this latter aspect of the subject.

A word on the text of the three treatises translated here: These are published in the Kavyamala series No.1, 2 and 4, and also in the Haridasa Samskrta Granthamala No. 24, 25, 26 also known as the Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series. The latter edition, though giving all the three at one place, is unfortunately defective.

With regard to the translation of the Kavikanthabharana, the Aucityavicaracarca and the Suvrttatilaka, I may add that to render them into English has been by no means an easy task. Every translator has his limitations depending on the nature of the work he translates. As a matter of fact no translation can adequately reflect the original author's mind. Translation is at best a .'shadow'. Rhythm word order, figures of speech, compactness or diffuseness of expression, these cannot be reproduced from one language into another . A miniature Sanskrit poem is like a little picture drawn by a master hand, complete alike in its nature and in its art, coloured with all the richness which a copious and flexible language like Sanskrit could impart.

Kesemendra’s works on poetics abound in vivid pictures in the fewest possible words; they defy translation. The ideas may be reproduced, but not their original excellence regarding situation, rhyme or rhythm. The difficulty f the task is aggravated by the highly technical nature of the subject and the complicated and critical prose of the author. Absence of any commentary on these treatises is perhaps another handicap.

While translation, however, the well-known dictum of Malinatha has been trictly followed: neither make an unfounded statement nor say anything unwanted.

Ksemendrda is, undoubtedly, a great luminary in the firmament of poetry. He is truly an inspirer like Valmiki and Vyasa who were his own mentors. His was’a vow to perpetuate learning ‘ in a selfless spirit, viz., Vrtam sarasvto yagah (Kavi II 2). All praise be to him. He was ‘The poet like the sun with his rays of poetry reaching every region reveals in fresh colours the sentiments, feelings and emotions of all beings.’

**Contents and Sample Pages**

**Ksemendra:The Eleventh Century Kashmiri Poet**

From the Jacket

So far Ksemendra, the throretician who propounded a new rhetorical thought viz aucitya, has undoubtedly attracted the interest of scholars much more than Ksemendra the poet. The present discourse, however concentrates primarily on Ksemendra, the eleventh century poet of Kashmir. The book is divided into seven Chapters. They are Ch.l The Brhatakathamanjari Ch.2 The Ramayanamanjari; Ch.3 the Bharatamanjari; Ch.4 Satires Ch.5 The Didactic Poems; Ch.6 The Bodhisattvavadanakalpalata and Ch.7 The Dasavatara-Carita. The book also contains an Introduction and conclusion.

Dr. Uma Chakravorty is presently at the Department of Sanskrit, Lady Keans’s College, Shillong, Meghalaya.

 

Preface

So far Ksemendra the theoretician who propounded a new rhetorical thought viz. aucitya has undoubtedly attracted the interest of scholars much more than Ksemendra the poet. The present discourse, however, concentrates primarily on Ksemendra, the eleventh century poet of Kashmir.

The present work was my doctoral dissertation prepared under the supervision of Dr. Janakiballabha Bhattacharyya and submitted to the Calcutta University for the Ph. D. degree several years back. Teaching in a college in Shillong and researching under Calcutta University, presented many obstacles in the preparation of the present work which thus suffers some what from inadequate justice to the subject. I assume full responsibility for its deficiencies.

My one regret is that I could not offer this humble work of mine to my father especially because he it was who introduced me to the various aspects of Indian culture, a legacy I dearly treasure. To-day I remember with a heavy heart the late Dr. Jogiraj Basu of Dibrugarh, who used to guide me like on elder brother in my academic life. I owe my thanks to my uncle Sri Amiya Chakravarti and my sister Smti Swati Maitra for the assistance they rendered during the preparation of the thesis.

The practical guidance which I obtained from Dr. Sukumari Bhattacharji, retired professor, Jadavpur University, in revising the thesis with a view to bringing it up-to-date and getting it ready for press within a rather short time, has made the task much easier for me. My colleague Dr. Pratima Choudhury has given me invaluable help in checking the type-script. I am indebted to Dr. Vasistha Narayan Jha, Director, Centre of Advance Studies in Sanskrit, Poona University, who took keen interest in the publication of my work and in this connection I also thank Shri Naresh Gupta, Director, Indian Books Centre. Delhi.

 

Introduction

Narendra was one of the ministers of King Jayapida of Kashmir. Bhogindra was the son of Narendra. Sindhu the son of Bhogindra was the father of Prakanendra and grandfather of Ksemendra, the renowned poet of Kashmir. Wealthy Prakasendra earned good reputation by his liberal and highly charitable enterprises. His son Ksemendra and the grandson Somendra often waxed eloquent with the narration of the charitable nature of Prakasendra.

Ksemendra was born towards the latter part of the tenth century A.D., most probably, during the reign of queen Didda (4.D. 980-1003). He sat at the feet of all the learned scholars of Kishmir, who fourished during that time, drank deep of the fount of learning and earned scholarship in all branches of knowledge. He took lessons in literature from Abhinavagupta who lived during the later half of the tenth and first half of the eleventh century of the christian era and our poet considered himself fortunate having got the chance to be a disciple of Somapada the celebrated teacher of the Bhagavata school of philosophy.’ Ksemendra, thus, entered into the literary world being guided by all the worthy teachers an earned proficiency in all branches of knowledge current in Kashmir during his time. On account of his hydra-headed genius he is rightly referred to as a polymath by all scholars of modern time.

Ksemendra was born with a refined taste. The favourable atmosphere at home in which he was brought up and the natural splendour and beauty of Kashmir also acted in harmony in the making of the poet. The poet by birth was a worshipper of Lord Siva. But, the vast and well-assimilitated learning of him rendered his mind dynamic and catholic. In course of time he was deeply touched by the noble and sympathetic ideals of the great Personality of Buddha and rightly offered his homage to the religious master in the form of the Bodhisattvavadanakalpalata- a work narrating the story of Buddha through a series of lives. But his dynamic mind soon guided him towards Vaisnavism. And, towards the decline of life, he endeavoured to earn the supreme bliss by resorting to the all- comprehensive religion of Lord Visnu.

Ksemendra started his poetic life with the composition of the epitomes of the great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the highly popular stories of the Brhatkatha of Gunadhya, no more extant Most probably he thought that the composition of epitomes of the great poetic works of the past was the essential task of a would be poet.

The Brhatkathamanjari an abridged edition of the Brhatkatha of Gunadhya was composed in 1037 A.D.,1 seems to be the first work of the poet and then he wrote the RãmJyanamaja1 add the Bharatamanjari All these compendiums are written in verses.

The reference of another epitome in poetry, viz., the Padyakadambari, an abridged edition of the Kdambari of Banahatta, is also met with but the manuscript of the work is no more available. We would like to say that the first stage of Ksemendra’s life in a poet ended with the composition of these epitomes.

The all-round education of Ksemendra did make of him a stern moralist. The observation of the moral degradation in the administrative body and in society deeply pained him He refused to remain silent. He came up with a chastising rod in the shape of his satires which exaggerated the vices and corrupt practices rampant in the contemporary society of Kashmir. But this negative attitude is not adequate for reforming a society unless and until positive moral principles are set up for the society for practising. To achieve this end, he composed the didactic poems.

A glance back to the history of the centuries in which the poet flourished may help us in forming a correct impression of the administrative body and society of Kashmir which were corrupted to the very core and prompted the astute moralist Ksemendra to criticise so ruthlessly. A short period was not able to degrade the people belonging to all the categories to that extremity. They took years to go down to that deplorable state.

The ideal king Avantivarman (A.D. 855/6-883) did not at all think of extending his domain. Moreover with good rule he brought about stability in the administrative system. But his son Sankaravarman (A.D. b83-902) did not follow the principles of his lather. He launched expeditions in different directions and consequently had to meet expenses of maintaining a large standing army. “Though the king’s military expeditions did not result in any considerable success, yet their expenses appear to have been a severe drain on the resources of Kashmir. To meet this, the king was driven to take exceptional measuies for raising revenue which caused severe hardship to the 1.eople’.’ And a large number of officers who were thoroughly corrupted were appointed to realise the taxes from the subjects. Indiscriminately, the king tortured all the wise people who were in charge of the sixty-four temples situated in different corners of the country with a view to seizing the wealth from those temples which would help him in the easy movement of the expeditions.’ In no time, the number of officers appointed for the realisation of taxes increased like anything; but very little of the amount extorted by those corrupted officers from the subjects by the application of cruel means, was deposited to the royal treasury. And, the inefficiency of the succeeding kings helped a lot in the growth of corruption which in every form had its start during the reign of king Sankaravarman.

Sunil Chandra Ray in his Early History of Kashmir, describes the political condition of Kashmir in the following way, “The political history of Kashmir after ankaravarman’s death is a sordid tale of jealousy, intrigue and intestine conflicts. Presence of a number of claimants for the throne and their rivalry prevented the proper working of the government. The impotency of the authority was fully exploited by the Tantrins who in their close military organisation resembled the praetorian guards of Rome and abused their strength in the same shameless manner. The pretenders of the throne were anxious to purchase their favour, and no sooner had one succeeded in winning them over than it was snatched away by another who had paid higher price for it. Nothing was considered too high for the price of the crown and to attain it. to quote the words of a former chef minister of the valley. ‘kings squandered their revenues, queens bartered their honour, the son intrigued against his father, and the father set assassins upon his offspring all lost their sense of truth and dignity for the acquisition, however temporary of the fatal reward”

Contents

 

	Preface	xi
	Abbreviations	xiii
	Introduction	1
	A life history of Ksemendra with a historical background – from the ninth to the eleventh century Kashmir; a list of Ksemendra’s published works; a list of his unpublished works; the scope and purpose of the work.
	1. The Brhatkathamanjari	13
	Kathapitha – an introduction to the Brhatkathamanjari the main story; the Brhatkathamanjari – an early attempt of Ksemenra; the Brahatkathamanjari – Sanskrit version of Kashmiri Slokasamgraha; the remarks of the earlier western scholars on the Brhatkathamanjari; a literary estimate.
	2. The Ramayanamanjari	29
	The gist of the story of the Ramayana as narrated by Ksemendra; and e valuation of literary ment with reference to Valmiki’s Ramayana.
	3. The Bharatamanjari	43
	The story of the Mahabharata as retold by Ksemendra; literary estimate wit reference to the Mahabharata
	4. The Satires	60
	A. The Narmamala, B. The Desopadesa C. The Samayamatrka D. the Kalavilasa; A. The Narmamala – apparently a satire but inherently bears reformative elements – three cantos – parihasas; first Parihasa – (a) the Grhakryadhipati; (b) the Pumsca laka; (c) the Paripalaka; (d) the Lekhakao padhyata; (e) Ganjadivira; (f) the Margapati of Vyaparika; (g) the Gramadivira; Second and third Parihasa – the tragic story of the proud wife of the niyogin – a living terror to the subjects – the capture and punishment of the whole administrative body.
	B. Desopadesa – a depiction of the degenerated Society; (a) Durjana; (b) Kadarya; (c) Vesya; (d) Kuttani; (e) Vita (f) Chhatra; (g) Vrddhavarya; (h) Prakirnavarnanam;
	C. Samayamatrka – the story of the bawd Kankali, her adopted daughter – the prostitute Kalavati, the barber Kanka and others; D. The Kalavilasa the instruction of Muladeva the foremost of the deceitful persons, on his disciple Candgragupta; I Dambha; (ii) Lobha; (iii) Kama; (iv) Vesyavrttam; (v) Kayasthacarita; (vi) Mada; (vii) Gayanas; Suvarnakarotpattih; Nanadhurtavarnanam; (x) Sakalakalanirupanam; Kalavilasa – a satire and a didactic composition.
	5. The Didactic Poems	95
	A. Sevyasevakopadesa B. Darpadalana, C. Carucarya, D. Caturvargasamgraha; A. Sevyasevakopadesa – an advice to the people with slavish attitude at the royal court; B. Darpadalana – conscientiousness is the virtue which guides a rational beings; (i) Kulavicara; (ii) Dhanavicara; (iii) Vidyavicara; (iv) Rupavicara; (v) Sauryavicara; (vi) Danavicara; (vii) Tapovicara; C. The Carucarya – consisting of hundred verses – each verse containing one moral precept; D. The Caturvargasamgraha – the four ends of human; life – dharma, artha, kama, moksa; (i) Dharma; (ii) Artha; (iii) Kama; (iv) Moksa.
	6. The Bodhisattvavadanakalpalata	122
	Introduction; The Life history of Buddha; Upliftment of the people belonging to lower category of people; The mode of teaching; The efficacy of Buddha’s teaching; Teacher Buddha as dedicated – his various aspects; The making of Buddha; Illustrations of the cardinal principles of Buddhism; Law of Karma; Philosophy of the Bodhisattvavadanakalpalata; An estimate of Buddhism; Critical notes; Moral precepts.
	7. The Dasavatara-Carita	215
	Introduction; Matsyavatara; Kurmayatara; Varahavatara; Narasimhavatra; Vamanavatara; Parasuramavatara; Ramavatara; Krsnavatara; Buddhavatara; Karkyavatara; Conclusion of the Dasavataracarita.
	Conclusion	262
	Bibliography	274
	Index	288

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